without compromising safety continues. Various avenues of research including the

application of artificial intelligence in the design of antigen, the use of new types of

adjuvants to boost the immune response, and better delivery agents, are being

pursued making this an exciting time in vaccine research.

REFERENCES

[1] O. Takeuchi and S. Akira, “Pattern recognition receptors and inflammation,” Cell,

vol. 140, pp. 805–820, 2010.

[2] T. Kawasaki and T. Kawai, “Toll-like receptor signaling pathways,” Front.

Immunol., vol. 5, pp. 1–8, 2014.

[3] L. C. Borish and J. W. Steinke, “Cytokines and chemokines.” J. Allergy Clin.

Immunol., vol. 111, pp. S460–S475, 2003.

[4] M. J. Kaplan and M. Radic, “Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs): Double-edged

swords of innate immunity,” J. Immunol, vol. 189, pp. 2689–2695, 2012.

[5] H. W. Schroeder, Jr and L. Cavacini, “Structure and function of immunoglobulins,”

J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., vol. 125, pp. S41–S52, 2010.

[6] M. Noris and G. Remuzzi, “Overview of complement activation and regulation,”

Semin Nephrol., vol. 33, pp. 479–492, 2013.

[7] W. R. Heath and F. R. Carbone, “Cross-presentation in viral immunity and self-

tolerance,” Nature Rev. Immunol., vol. 1, pp. 126–135, 2001.

[8] V. Votter, G. Denizer, L. R. Friedland, J. Krishnan and M. Shapiro, “Understanding

modern-day vaccines: what you need to know,” Ann. Med., vol. 50, pp. 110–120,

2018.

[9] S. M. C. Tirado and K.-J. Yoon, “Antibody-dependent enhancement of virus in-

fection and disease,” Viral Immunol., vol. 16, pp. 69–86, 2003.

[10] H. F. Maassab, “Adaptation and growth characteristics of influenza virus at 25

degrees c,” Nature, vol. 213, pp. 612–614, 1967.

[11] M. Kanekiyo, D. Ellis and N. P. King, “New Vaccine Design and Delivery

Technologies,” J. Infect Diseases, vol. S1, pp. S88–S96, 2019.

[12] G. Bruno, F. Noriega, R. L. Ochiai et al., “A recombinant live attenuated tetravalent

vaccine for the prevention of dengue,” Expert Rev. Vaccines, vol. 16, pp. 1–13, 2017.

[13] C.-L. Hsieh, J. A. Goldsmith, J. M. Schaub et al., “Structure-based design of

prefusion-stabilized SARS-CoV-2 spike,” Science, vol. 369, pp. 1501–1505, 2020.

[14] M. A. Liu, “A comparison of plasmid DNA and mRNA as vaccine technologies,”

Vaccines, vol. 7, pp. 37–57, 2019.

[15] P. Gottlieb, P. J. Utz, W. Robinson and L. Steinman, “Clinical optimization of

antigen specific modulation of type 1 diabetes with the plasmid DNA platform,”

Clin. Immunol., vol. 149, pp. 297–306, 2013.

[16] H. Garren, W. H. Robinson, E. Krasulová, et al., “Phase 2 trial of a DNA vaccine

encoding myelin basic protein for multiple sclerosis,” Ann. Neurol. vol. 63,

pp. 611–620, 2008.

[17] D. Hobernik and M. Bros “DNA vaccines—How far from clinical use?” Int. J. Mol.

Sci, vol. 19, pp. 3605–3633, 2018.

[18] N. Pardi, M. J. Hogan, F. W. Porter and D. Weissman “mRNA vaccines—a new era

in vaccinology,” Nat. Rev. Drug Discovery, vol. 17, pp. 261–279, 2018.

[19] R. Verbeke, I. Lentacker, S. C. De Smedt, and H. Dewitte, “The dawn of mRNA

vaccines: The COVID-19 case,” J. Controlled Release, vol. 333, pp. 511–520, 2021.

54

Bioprocessing of Viral Vaccines